Logical Fallacies

By: Hanna Mangold

At this point in your college career, you may have heard professors talking about, and discouraging, the use of logical fallacies in argumentative papers. The term “logical fallacies” actually refers to a wide range of errors in reasoning, and it can get a little confusing. I’m going to point out several definitions and examples in order to help you make sense of the logical fallacies problem.

Although the various types of logical breakdowns have specific names (you may have heard of the “Slippery Slope” or “Straw Man” fallacies), it’s much more important to recognize that a logical fallacy has been made, than to be able to identify the specific type of fallacy.

Once you become familiar with the logical fallacy concept, I’m sure you’ll start seeing them everywhere! Politicians and advertisers are infamous abusers of logic—usually as an attempt to discredit their competition. The problem, of course, is that an invalid argument ends up making them sound desperate and deliberatively deceitful. Sometimes logical fallacies are used for humorous purposes—these examples poke fun at people who use false logic.

Have you seen Monty Python and the Holy Grail? In one famous scene, a mob of medieval peasants seeks to convict a woman of witch craft (watch here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zrzMhU_4m-g&authuser=0). The mob’s logic (inductive and deductive reasoning) makes sense, but it is rendered completely fallacious by the false premises they set as indicators of witchcraft.

A more recent example can be found here (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lTvFuA6wNhY&authuser=0), in a compilation of DirectTV commercials. In this advertising campaign, DirectTV makes fun of advertisers who use faulty logic to promote their products, by using faulty logic in a humorous way.

So, onto the nitty gritty:

What is a logical fallacy?

1.     According to yourdictionary.com:

The term "logical fallacy" refers to the concept of making an error in terms of reasoning. It is crucial to understand logical fallacies so that they can be identified and avoided when attempting to persuade.

2.     According to sources compiled on grammar.about.com:

An error in reasoning that renders an argument invalid.

“Logical fallacies are unsubstantiated assertions that are often delivered with a conviction that makes them sound as though they are proven facts" (McMullin, The New Handbook of Cognitive Therapy Techniques, 2000).

“A logical fallacy is a false statement that weakens an argument by distorting an issue, drawing false conclusions, misusing evidence, or misusing language" (Dave Kemper et al., Fusion: Integrated Reading and Writing. Cengage, 2015).

3.     According to the PurdueOWL:

 Fallacies are common errors in reasoning that will undermine the logic of your argument. Fallacies can be either illegitimate arguments or irrelevant points, and are often identified because they lack evidence that supports their claim. Avoid these common fallacies in your own arguments and watch for them in the arguments of others. (PurdueOWL)

Why is it important to recognize these lapses in reasoning?

·       In order to identify weak arguments in source material/news articles.

·       In order to think critically about what we hear and how people are attempting to persuade us.

·       In order to avoid making weak arguments in our own writing.

"There are three good reasons to avoid logical fallacies in your writing. First, logical fallacies are wrong and, simply put, dishonest if you use them knowingly. Second, they take away from the strength of your argument. Finally, the use of logical fallacies can make your readers feel that you do not consider them to be very intelligent" (William R. Smalzer, Write to Be Read: Reading, Reflection, and Writing, 2nd ed. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2005) (from grammar.about.com).

Think about it, why would you want to avoid making a logical fallacy? What does it do to your argument? To your authority on the subject?

The following links are a few great sources for exploring logical fallacies more closely:

http://grammar.about.com/od/il/g/logicfalterm.htm (some good definitions and examples)

https://yourlogicalfallacyis.com/ (a fun interactive website and printable poster that break down types of fallacies)

https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/659/03/ (good definition and breakdown of examples by type)

For fun and practice, try figuring out what’s wrong with the following statements pulled from http://factchecked.org/Downloads/teacher.handout.sample.fallacies%281%29.pdf:

Ladies and gentlemen of the jury, look at the bloody clothes, the murder weapon. Imagine the helpless screams of the victim. Such a crime deserves no verdict except guilty, guilty!

I’m not a doctor, but I play a doctor on TV, and I wouldn’t dream of using anything but Tylenol for my toughest headaches.

We should pass a constitutional amendment making it illegal to burn the American flag. Anyone who thinks otherwise just hates America.

Do most Americans believe in God? To find out, we asked over 10,000 scientists at colleges and universities throughout America. Less than 40 percent said they believed in God. The conclusion is obvious: Most Americans no longer believe in God.

The Soviet Union collapsed after taking up atheism. Therefore, we must avoid atheism for the same reasons.

You’re a vegetarian? You do realize that Hitler was a vegetarian, too?

The war in Iraq has been a complete success. After all, Saddam Hussein is dead, and the Iraqis had their first free election in years.

Most heroin users started out smoking pot. If you start smoking pot, you’ll end up a heroin user, too.

Undergraduate Research Proposal Writing

By Madison Chapman

American University is working towards becoming a stronger research university by tapping into its undergraduate population. Even before figuring out a major, students often express an interest in contributing to a professor’s research project or starting their own research initiative for experience. Such opportunities allow students to explore the world of academia while gaining valuable experience which can look impressive on resumes, graduate school applications, and applications for competitive graduate school scholarships (e.g. Rhodes, Marshall, Fulbright Awards). Currently, few students know of an annual competitive opportunity through the Vice Provost Office which enables undergraduate students to head up their own research endeavors. The AU Summer Scholars & Artists Fellowship Award is offered to eight students across the university who submit exemplary proposals for research projects to be conducted over an eight week period during the summer. The $4000 award can be put towards any related expenses, and the project does not have to be conducted on/near AU’s campus as long as the student is in regular contact with their sponsoring faculty mentor.

So how exactly do you write a research proposal if you have never done research before? As one of this past year’s Summer Scholar Award winners, I want to share a few tips for crafting an effective proposal.

·       Think ahead! The strongest research projects (regardless of discipline) stem from projects started in advanced classes within your major. Talk to your professors about how you could expand or extend work on a topic that interests you.

·       Start early! Once you know what you want to do, work with your designated mentor, academic advisor or even another professor to perfect your draft proposal. The experts in your field will know the proper phrasing and keywords necessary for research proposals.

·       Ask yourself why this topic is important! Make sure your research project is tackling a subject which interests you while also addressing something significant and timely to your discipline.

·       Know the scholarly conversation! You are entering an academic dialogue when you begin a research endeavor. Work with professors to discover the literature in your field most relevant to your subject. Before you start original research, you should gain a thorough understanding of how your work fits into the field as a whole. 

·       Have a methodology! Whether you have a scientific project requiring specific technology or you are conducting a humanities project, you need to know exactly how you are going to try to answer your research question(s). Your proposal is not just to articulate what you want to research and why, but also serves to validate that you are capable of carrying out the project successfully.

·       Be mindful of scope! The selection panel will reward ambition only within limits. As scholars-in-the-making, you should be aware of how specific your topic needs to be in order to be manageable. While many people (such as myself) expand their summer projects into independent studies and/or capstones, you need to know what you can accomplish just within those eight weeks.

·       Stay positive! Although I have mentioned a lot of qualifications for your proposal, try to sound confident and passionate. Remember, you are only competing with other undergraduate students. No one can claim to have vast research experience so don’t try to sound like an expert yet. At this point in your academic career, you are only responsible for having genuine interest and motivation. Good luck!

For Your Consideration: Sounds for the Writing Environment

by Hannah Williams


As we get to work on brainstorming, writing, and revising essay drafts, I want to ask: does your work environment ever seem all wrong? Perhaps you live in a dorm with a lot of distractions, or the coffee shop is too crowded, or your favorite spot in the library is taken--the variables are endless! It can be hard to find the right amount of quiet--or the right amount of noise--to feel relaxed and ready to take on an assignment. For some, your mindset correlates directly with the ability to actually get some writing accomplished, so the writing environment can be very important.

There are several great online resources with which you can generate the kind of atmosphere that suits you on that particular day. Below, I've shared some links to some of my favorite resources. I believe these resources offer realistic, soothing, and focus-generating sounds. 

So whenever you don't have the time or means to get that setting just right, maybe these can help! 

1) Coffitivity

With Coffitivity, you can choose between "Morning Murmur," "Lunchtime Lounge," and "University Undertones" so that the coffee shop atmosphere becomes customizable! And if you sign up for a premium account, there are even more atmospheres at your fingertips. 

2) Rainy days

Rainy days mean that you're probably stuck indoors, so you might as well try to get some homework done, right? Here's a way to make that happen any time you want. 

3) Morning in the forest

YouTube is a great place to look up atmospheric sounds and pick the right one for you. Here's a great example of simple, pleasant sounds. 

Happy writing! 

Recommended Resource: "The Elements of Style" by Will Strunk and E. B. White

Source: NY Times

Since 1957, The Elements of Style has been a hallmark of English grammar and composition in the United States. It may be less than a hundred pages long, but the advice that Will Strunk and E. B. White has resonated with teachers and students alike for over 50 years. The authors cover topics ranging from from when to use and not to use commas, which words to avoid, how to divide paragraphs, and other writing basics. Even The New Yorker claims this book is "direct, correct, and delightful." Best of all, you can buy (or rent!) this wonderful resource in traditional paperback or through e-books if you prefer.

WRITING RESOURCE: University of North Carolina's Handouts

Do you like those handouts we give out at the Writing Center? Good news– The University of North Carolina (UNC) has a great archive of handouts covering over a 100 topics, ranging everything from "Brainstorming" to "Revising Drafts." Plus, some of the topics have nifty videos to supplement the handouts. For more details and helpful tips, check out UNC Writing Center's YouTube channel.

QUICK TIP: Learn Concision From The Experts!

Having trouble with wordiness or repetitive phrases? One profession that's obsessed with word count and concision is journalism -- we academic writers could learn a lot from their attention to phrasing!

Here are a couple links from the Columbia Journalism Review on the subject of wordiness: Locution, Locution, Locution, which lists some often-used repetitive phrases, and The Frugal Writer, a piece that includes this wonderful primer chart on wordy phrases to avoid and how to correct them:

Take a closer look and try to apply some of these concision tips to your own writing, as you prepare to edit and complete your final papers!

All You Need to Know About Integrating Quotations

by Griffin Moar

The following is taken from OWL at Purdue University, which is an awesome source if you’re looking for more writing help!

Always remember to ICE:

• Introduce the quote,
• Cite your source,
• and Explain how it supports your idea.

Use a comma to introduce a quotation after a standard dialogue tag, a brief introductory phrase, or a dependent clause. For example: “He asked,” “She stated,” “According to Bronson,” or “As Shakespeare wrote.”

Use a colon to introduce a quotation after an independent clause.

• As D.H. Nachus explains, “The gestures used for greeting others differ greatly from one culture to another.”
• D.H. Nachus explains cultural differences in greeting customs: “Touching is not a universal sign of greeting. While members of European cultures meet and shake hands as a gesture of greeting...”

Put commas and periods within closing quotation marks, except when a parenthetical reference follows the quotation. When using parenthetical references, remember to put all punctuation after the closing parenthesis.

• He said, “I may forget your name, but I never remember a face.”
• History is stained with blood spilled in the name of “civilization.”
• Mullen, criticizing the apparent inaction, writes, “Donahue’s policy was to do nothing” (27).

Put colons and semicolons outside closing quotation marks.

• Williams described the experiment as “a definitive step forward”; other scientists disagreed
• Benedetto emphasizes three elements of what she calls her “Olympic journey”: family support, personal commitment, and great coaching.

Put a dash, question mark, or exclamation point within closing quotation marks when the punctuation applies to the quotation itself and outside when it applies to the whole sentence.

• Philip asked, “Do you need this book?”
• Does Dr. Lim always say to her students, “You must work harder”?
• Sharon shouted enthusiastically, “We won! We won!”

WRITING RESOURCE: Grammar Girl

by Chuck Sebian-Lander

Do you like the grammar tips we provide, both in sessions and here on the blog? Well, you can get a ton more in an entertaining package at the Grammar Girl website! The Grammar Girl tackles more English grammar issues than you might have even known existed, including some topics we've addressed here on our blog, from affect versus effect to ending sentences with a preposition to i.e. versus e.g. You can submit your own questions to be answered on her website, and she even has a newsletter you can follow to receive regular tips and a podcast on iTunes!

English is a tricky language, full of oddities and quirks. Strengthen your grasp on the language today: come visit the Writing Center, and then take some time listen to the Grammar Girl!

WRITING RESOURCES: The Everyday Writer

By Griffin Moar

During Writing Center sessions I frequently find myself reaching for a copy of Andrea A. Lunsford’s Everyday Writer (which we keep in every one of our meeting spaces) and saying, “Let’s look for the answer to that question here.” The book is indispensable when writing a college paper; it answers questions about conducting research, writing a thesis, citing sources, and much, much more. 

Since the book is required for all AU freshmen, most of you already have a copy… so use it! (And if you don't have a copy yet, this book is a great investment.) Keeping The Everyday Writer and other resources at hand during the writing process will save you lots of time and energy in the long run.